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The
Earthquake and Tsunami of October 4, 1994 in the Kuril Islands
George
Pararas-Carayannis
Introduction
A major earthquake
(magnitude Ms 8.1) occurred near Shikotan Island, in the South
Kuril Island Group of Russia's Far East, at 13:23 UTC, October
4, 1994 (0:23 a.m. Oct. 5, local time). The quake was extensively
damaging in the Kuril Islands, killing 11 people and injuring
242. It caused several landslides and generated a destructive
tsunami. 8 people died from the direct effects of the tsunami.
. It was a sudden
event, without any short- term precursors or foreshocks. The
slides in this set show views of a newly-created landslide formation,
ground cracks, structural damage, and effects of tsunami runup
on Shikotan Island. The documentation is a scientific overview
of this event, written by a member of the international team
that studied it.
Regional and Pacific
wide warnings were issued for the Kuril Islands, Japan, the Hawaiian
Islands and the west coast of Canada and the United States. The
area most affected by local damaging tsunami waves were primarily
Shikotan, Kunashir, Iturup, of the South Kuril Island Group,
and Hokkaido, Japan.
Tsunami runup height measurements were made in Shikotan, Iturup,
Kunashir, and small islands between Shikotan and Hokkaido by
a team of international scientists. Maximum runup on Shikotan
Island was determined to be approximately 10 m high. However
none of the reported casualties was attributed to the direct
effects of the tsunami.
 Epicenter
and Focal Depth
The earthquake epicenter
epicenter was offshore, about 80 km east southeast of Shikotan
Island at 43.668 N, 147.333
Its focal depth was shallow (less than 33 km).
Epicenter
of the October 4, 1994 Earthquake - Approximate Area of Tsunami
Generation
Aftershocks
Many aftershocks followed
the main shock, the largest (magnitude 7.2) occured on Oct 9,
1994 (07:56 UTC) with epicenter near that of the major event.
Periodic aftershocks continued for several weeks. The distribution
of major afterhocks was within the elliptical area in the map
- which also approximates the tsunami generating area.
Ground Motions
The earthquake was
associated with very strong ground motions which were particularly
intense on Shikotan Island - one of the South Kuril Islands located
nearest the epicenter. Maximum earthquake intensity was estimated
to be between 9 and 10 on the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale.
The quake's strong
motions caused several large gaping fissures and landslides.
At Shikotan Island, there was approximately 50 cm of subsidence
and major fissure formations were observed. Near Malokurils,
on Shikotan, the main fissure was approximately 350 m long and
as much as 60 m wide.
Earthquake
Effects - Deaths and Damage
The quake killed 11
people, injured 242 and caused moderate damage in the Kuril Islands.
Eight casualties were due to the tsunami which had significant
runup (approximately 10 m high runup was measured on Shikotan
Island). The earthquake's strong ground motions damaged many
oil storage tanks on Shikotan and resulted in leakage of oil
and significant adverse environmental impact.
Surprisingly, the
casualty toll and damages were light for an earthquake of this
magnitude (Ms 8.1). The low casualties are attributed to the
low population density in the region and the fact that the earthquake
occurred at night, when people were at home. Also, most of the
residential houses in this area are constructed of wood - thus
less vulnerable to strong earthquake motions. Most of the damage
occurred to inadequately reinforced masonry structures.
In Hokkaido, Japan,
one person was killed and 140 were injured.
Tectonic
Setting of the Northern Japan/Kuril Island Region
 The Kuril island arc is located
between the Kamchatka Peninsula and the Japanese island of Hokkaido.
The Kuril Trench has been formed by the subduction of the Pacific
plate under the North American plate. It extends from the offshore
central area of Kamchatka to Hokkaido.
The plate tectonics
of the Southern Kuril islands-Northern Hokkaido region are quite
complex and very different than those along the southern portion
of the Japanese Trench. The South Kuril Islands are part of the
Kuril arc in the Okhotsk plate which has been colliding westward
against the Northeast Japan arc, along the Hidaka Collision Zone
(HCZ), where new continental crust is created by active arc-arc
collision.
Deep seismic reflection
studies (Ito,
Kazuka @Abe, 2001) show
the lower crust of the Kuril arc to be delaminated at a depth
of about 23 km. These studies indicate that the upper half (above
23 km) - consisting of the earth's upper crust and the upper
portion of lower crust of the Kuril arc - is thrusting over the
Northeast Japan arc along the Hidaka Main Thrust (HMT). However,
the lower half (below 23 km) - consisting of the lower portion
of lower crust and upper mantle material - is descending downward.
As a result of such
kinematic processes, the wedge of the Northeast Japan arc is
intruded into the delaminated Kuril arc, as the Pacific plate
is subducting northward beneath both of the above mentioned structures,
thus continuing the arc-arc collision (and continental crust
production). The complex, seismo- tectonic kinematic process
of this region has been named "Delamination-wedge-subduction
system" - which may apply also to other areas where active
arc-arc collision and concurrent subduction take place.
 Specifically, the October 4,
1994 earthquake (as the October 12, 1963 earthquake) ocurred
at the Pacific side boundary of the Kuril arc (the South Kuril
Islands) of the Okhotsk plate. This region is characterized by
large earthquakes (such as the 1963 and 1994 events), but with
lesser vertical subduction and greater rotational movement -
as the North Pacific Plate grinds against it. The whole area
appears to be highly fractured by complex tectonic interactions
and the crustal displacements appear to be ocurring along the
boundaries of broken subplates that may not be longer than 200-250
Km. The Kuril Backarc Basin
is a deep basin
in southern Sea of Okhotsk northwest of Kuril arc. These fractured
smaller plates, near this tectonically active arc - arc collision
area, appear to limit the extent of crustal displacements. This
is the reason why large magnitude earthquakes in this region
have generated only locally destructive - and not Pacific-wide
- tsunamis.
The Sea of Japan,
is a complex basin between Japan and the Korea/Okhotsk Sea Basin.
It represents another subplate with apparent rotational movement
as it interacts against the Okhotsk plate, along the inland sea
boundary of the Hidaka Collision Zone (HCZ). Sakhalin island
, north of Hokkaido, which separates the Sea of Japan from the
Sea of Okhotsk is probably the result of transpressional tectonics
along the North America-Eurasia boundary. T he 1983 earthquake
and tsunami in the Sea of Japan occured south of the boundary
of these interacting subplates (Pararas-Carayannis, 1995). Hokkaido - Japan's northernmost island -
extends northeast into Kuril Islands and is composed of multiple
compressed island arcs. The northern half of Honshu (north of
Tokyo), which is Japan's main island, represents a typical mature
island arc, with the Pacific plate subducting below the North
American plate, while the southern half of the island represents
also a typical mature island arc, as the Philippine Sea plate
subducts below the Eurasian plate.
The
Tsunami of October 4, 1994 in the Kuril Islands
The October 4, 1994
earthquake generated a destructive, local tsunami which struck
the coastlines, primarily near the epicentral region in the southern
Kuril Islands. Tsunami waves with runups ranging up to 10 meters
(30 feet) were reported.
Because of the large
earthquake magnitude and the known tsunamicity of the area, regional
and Pacific-wide warnings were issued by the Pacific Tsunami
Warning Center in Honolulu , for the Kuril Islands, Japan, the
Hawaiian Islands, and the west coast of Canada and the United
States. Regional Warning Centers in Russia and Japan also issued
regional tsunami warnings. However, the tsunami was destructive
only near the area of generation. Only a small tsunami was observed
or recorded at distant locations in the Pacific.
Tsunami
Recordings and Observations locally and at Distant Locations
 Kuril Islands - Most affected by damaging waves were the islands
of Shikotan, Kunashir and Iturup, in the South Kurils. According
to reports, Shikotan Island was one of the hardest-hit areas
by both the earthquake and the tsunami. Following the disaster,
a team of international scientists made measurements of tsunami
runup heights at Shikotan, Iturup, Kunashir, and the small islands
between Shikotan and Hokkaido (Yeh et al, 1995). Maximum
runup on Shikotan Island was reported to be approximately 10
m (about 30 feet) high.
Since the South Kuril
Island region has a long history of many large, local tsunamis,
the people in this region were fairly well prepared. This probably
accounts for the low death toll for the October 4, 1994 tsunami-
in spite of its high runup (Pararas-Carayannis,
1995).
Map of Kunashir Island
Kunsashir Island - At Kuzhno-Kurilsk, tsunami waves
ranged in height from 2.5 to 3.0 m. penetrated 200-500 m inland
damaging and destroying houses.
Japan - The
areas most affected were Kushiro, Hachinohe, Chichijima and Hanasaki,
on the island of Hokkaido. One person was killed and 140 more
were injured. Runup measurements along the Hokkaido coast were
carried out by a team of scientists from Japan's Tohoku University (Takahashi
and Shuto, 1994). An approximately 1.8 m tsunami runup was reported
in Nemuro.
Hawaiian Islands
- The tsunami waves
were not damaging in Hawaii but were readily recorded by tide
gauges. The highest recorded wave at Midway I. was 0.54 meters
(peak to trough) and in Kahului, Maui, 0.8 meters (peak to trough).
Tsunami
Damage at Kunashir Island
Area
flooded by the tsunami at Yuzhno-Kurilsk. Tsunami waves propagated
up the river, destroyed the bridge in the foreground and damaged
structures. The small building on its side just above the destroyed
bridge was carried by the waves 500 m from its original site
(Photo by A. Korablev)
The
tsunami at Yuzhno-Kurilsk damaged a dock and sunk boats (Photo
by A. Klochkov)
The
tsunami carried this ship 70 m inland (Photo by Yuri Korolyov)
The
Generating Area of the October 4, 1994 Tsunami
Based on the earthquake aftershock
distribution, the tsunami generating area was estimated to be
approximately 120 by 150 kilometers.
Maximum measured subsidence
at Shikotan Island was only 50 cm . This was surprising given
the earthquake's large magnitude.
Many things were learned
from this particular event about the plate tectonics of the region
and the potential of tsunami generation in the Southern Kuril
islands-Northern Hokkaido area (see section above about the tectonic setting
of the region). The dimensions of fissures on Shikotan Island
(main fissure mear Malokurils was as much as 60 m wide) suggest
small vertical but extensive lateral crustal displacements. There
were also many similarities in magnitude and epicenter location
of this 1994 event with another quake which had occurred on 12
October 1963, and had a major aftershock om 19 October 1963 (Pararas-Carayannis,
1995). In spite of their similar great magnitudes,
these past quakes also generated destructive local tsunamis only.
Their effects at distant Pacific locations were also minor.
Fault and
Azimuthal Orientation of the Tsunamigenic Area
The fault length was
estimated to be about 120-150 km long. The orientation of the
tsunamigenic area was approximately N55W.
Tsunamigenic
Potential along the Japan Trench in the Hokkaido/Kuril Island Region
Subduction along the
Japanese Trench has been primarily responsible for many large
historical earthquakes and catastrophic tsunamis on the Pacific
side of the Northern Japan/South Kuril island region (see
also section above about the tectonic setting of the inland sea
basins). Tectonic movements in the inland Seas of Japan
and of Okhtsok have also been responsible for large earthquakes
and tsunamis but their effects have been confined to the immediate
area (i.e. May 25, 1983 Northern Japan Sea tsunami).
The October 4, 1994
tsunami - like that of October 12, 1963 - ocurred on the Pacific
side boundary of a smaller tectonic subplate which includes the
Sea of Okhotsk and possibly a portion of the northern part of
the Sea of Japan (Pararas-Carayannis,
1995). Apparently, the grinding motion of the North
Pacific Plate against this subplate, results in large earthquakes
- such as those of 1963 and 1994 - but apparently with less vertical
subduction and more rotational movement. For example, the 1994
quake resulted in only about 50 cm of land subsidence but in
extensive lateral movement at Shikotan Island. A greater amount
of subsidence would have been expected, given the earthquake's
large magnitude.
The crustal area in
the Southern Kuril Islands and Northern Hokkaido, along the northern
part of the Japanese Trench, appears to be highly fractured.
As described previously, the South Kuril Islands are part of
the Kuril arc in the Okhotsk plate which has been aslo colliding
westward against the Northeast Japan arc, along the Hidaka Collision
Zone (HCZ), where new continental crust is created by active
arc-arc collision. Crustal displacements appear to be ocurring
along these boundaries of highly fractured subplates that may
not be longer than 250-300 km. Also, it appears that these fractured
smaller plates limit the extent of crustal displacements and,
therefore, the energy imparted for tsunami generation. The historical
record supports this as well. This and the shallower focal depths
may be the reasons why very large magnitude earthquakes in this
region have produced tsunamis which have been only locally destructive.
Past
Earthquakes and Tsunamis in the Northern Japan/Kuril Island Region
(since
1963)
Review of the historic
record indicates that the following tsunamis were generated in
recent years near Kamtchatka, the Kuril Islands, Northern Japan
and the Sea of Japan:
October 13, 1963 -
Kuril Islands (MS=8.1, I=2.5) - Urup tsunami.
June 16, 1964 -
Sea of Japan - (MS=7.5) - Niigata tsunami (26 dead).
August 11, 1969 - Kuril
Islands (MS=7.8, I=2.0) - Shikotan tsunamis.
November 22, 1969 -
Kamchatka (MS=7.7, I =3.0) - Ozernoy tsunami.
May 25, 1983 - Northern part of Sea of Japan
(MS= 7.7) - (104 dead).
January 15, 1993 -
Japan / Hokkaido (MS=7.8) - Kushiro tsunami, one dead.
July 12, 1993 -
Japan Sea (MS=7.7, I=3.0) - Okushiri tsunami ( Maximum Wave Height
30.2m) (more than 200 dead).
October 4, 1994 - South Kuril Islands/Northern
Japan Hokkaido(MS=8.1, I=2.6) - Shikotan tsunami (8 dead in Kuril
Islands).
Similarities
of the October 4, 1994 Earthquake and Tsunami with the October
12, 1963 Event
Reference to the historical
Tsunami data (Iida,
Cox, Pararas-Carayannis, 1968) indicates that there has never
been a Pacific-wide tsunami threat, even from the largest earthquakes
in the Northern Hokkaido or the Kuril Island region; only local
damaging tsunamis have been generated. A comparison between the
earthquakes and tsunamis of October 4, 1994 and October 12, 1963,
shows many similarities. Both were very similar in magnitude
and epicenter location and affected the same region (Northern
Hokkaido, Kuril islands). Although both of these two events generated
large and damaging local tsunamis, neither generated a damaging
Pacific-wide tsunami.
Oct
4, 1994
Magnitude 8.2 / Epicenter
43.668 N, 147.333 E / Depth: 33 km / Time 0:323 UTC
(Area Affected by
local damaging tsunamis: South Kuril Islands (Shikotan, Kunashir,
Iturup, etc.)
Japan: Hanasaki, Kushiro,
Hachinohe, Chichijima
Highest Recorded at
Midway I.- 0.54 meters (peak to trough)
Highest in Hawaii: Kahului 0.8 meters (peak to trough)
PTWC issued Pacific-wide Tsunami Warning
Oct
12, 1963
Magnitude 8.2 / Epicenter
44.8 N , 149.5 E / Depth: 33 km / Time 05:18 UTC
(Area Affected by local damaging tsunamis: South Kuril Islands
(Urup, Shikotan, Kunashir, Urup, Iturup, Paramushir, etc )
Japan: Hanasaki, Kushiro, Hachinohe,Chichijima
Highest Recorded at
Midway I. - 0.3 meters adjusted to 0.6 meters peak to trough
Highest in Hawaii -
Kahului 0.4 meters adjusted to 0.8 meters peak to trough
PTWC issued Pacific-wide Tsunami Warning
Similarities - There are similarities in magnitude,
and epicenter location. There is overlap in tsunami generation
area. Tsunami heights and damage in immediate area are very similar.
Both tsunamis recorded similarly at the Midway Island. The Kahului
tide gauge recordings were the highest for both events in the
Hawaiian islands.
Comparison
of the two major aftershocks of the above events.
Oct 9, 1994
Magnitude 7.2 / Epicenter
Same approximate location as major quake / Depth: Shallow /Time
0756 UTC
(Area probably affected
by local tsunamis: South Kuril Islands, unknown height but expected
to be small
Japan: Hanasaki (9cm), Kushiro (3cm),
Highest Recorded at
Midway I.: unknown
Highest in Hawaii: unknown
PTWC did not issue a Watch or a Warning.
Oct 19, 1963
Magnitude 6. 75-7
/ Epicenter 44.7 N 150.7 E / Depth: 33 km / Time 00:53 UTC
(Area Affected by small observed or recorded local tsunamis:
South Kuril Islands (Urup, Shikotan, Kunashir, Urup, Iturup,
Paramushir)
Japan: Recorded or observed at Hanasaki,
Kushiro, Hachinohe,Chichijima
Highest Recorded at
Midway I. 0.2 meters adjusted to 0.4 meters peak to trough
Highest in Hawaii: Kahului 0.4 meters adjusted to 0,8 meters
peak to trough
PTWC issued a Pacific-wide Tsunami Warning
Comparison
with the Great Sanriku Earthquake and Tsunami of 1933
Even the great Sanriku
earthquake of 1933 - which generated a very destructive local
tsunami in Japan - did not generate a damaging tsunami elsewhere
in the Pacific. The origin of the 1933 tsunami had been near
the island of Honshu (quake epicenter at 39.1 N. , 144.7 E.),
approximately 300 nautical miles south and 120 nautical miles
westward of the October 4, 1994 event . This southern region
of the Japanese Trench is characterized by much greater vertical
subduction. Yet, in spite of the greater vertical crustal movement
and the more optimal orientation of the tsunami generating area
- and even though greater amount of energy radiated unobstructed
towards Hawaii and the Eastern Pacific - the maximum tsunami
oscillation anywhere in the Pacific from the 1933 Sanriku event
was at Crescent City, California, where a 1.1 meter (4 ft) wave
was recorded.
Summary
and Conclusions
Based on this review
and comparisons, the following general conclusions can be drawn:
The October 4, 1994
earthquake occurred along a seismic region that has generated
many large local destructive tsunamis in the past. It ocurred
at the Pacific side boundary of the Kuril arc (the South Kuril
Islands) of the Okhotsk plate. This region is characterized by
large earthquakes but with lesser vertical subduction and greater
rotational movement. The area appears to be highly fractured
by complex tectonic interactions and the crustal displacements
appear to be ocurring along the boundaries of broken subplates
that may not be longer than 200-250 Km. These fractured smaller
plates, near this tectonically active arc - arc collision area,
appear to limit the extent of crustal displacements. This is
the reason why large magnitude earthquakes in this region have
generated only locally destructive - and not Pacific-wide - tsunamis.
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