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ALEXANDER
THE GREAT - IMPACT OF THE 325 BC TSUNAMI IN THE NORTH ARABIAN
SEA UPON HIS FLEET
George
Pararas-Carayannis
Copyright © 2006.
All Rights Reserved
Introduction
According to ancient
texts, in 325 BC or 326 BC, a large earthquake along the Makran
coast in the North Arabian Sea generated a destructive tsunami
which destroyed part of Alexander the Great's fleet. The following
is an evaluation of this event as deduced from historical records
and current geophysical understanding of the seismo-tectonics
of the Makran Subduction Zone - a source region of large earthquakes
and tsunamis, recently and in the past.
Historic
Records Supporting the Tsunami
There are Greek, Indian and Sri Lankan accounts which support
that an earthquake and a tsunami occurred in the South Asian
region around 325 - 326 B.C. However, the reports and dates
on this event are somewhat conflicting as to whether it occurred
in 325 BC or 326 BC. The author of the present article is attempting
to reconcile the time discrepancies and may revise the year of
the event. According to the Sri Lanka records, the reported tsunami
was the same that destroyed the ancient city of Kalyani Kanika
and other townships along the Eastern Seaboard of the island.
However, the dates do not match, since the tsunami in Sri Lanka
is purported to have occurred at the time of King Kelanitissa
- in the 2nd Century BC.
Similarly, the account
by Nearchus of Crete, Arrian of Nicomedia, and Plutarch are not
clear as to a tsunami and what exactly happened to the Greek
fleet following the India campaign. Probably many other hardships
and losses during the arduous journey of the fleet on its way
back to Mesopotamia overshadowed the destruction and damage caused
by the tsunami. Unusually destructive waves were probably attributed
to monsoons, since there was no understanding of the relationship
between earthquakes and tsunamis at that time. Also, all unusual
extreme phenomena of nature were thought to be acts of gods,
as it will be illustrated later with the account of a tsunami
by Diodorus Siculus.
Nearchus' and Arrian's
"Indike" Accounts - Nearchus of Crete was Alexander's admiral in command of the fleet
back to Mesopotamia. He wrote a book about the naval expedition,
which was also to be a voyage of discovery. Unfortunately, Nearchus'
book "Indike" - which described the journey back to
Babylonia - was lost. However, some of its contents are known
from another book - also named "Indike" - written by
Arrian (Arrianos of Nicomedia). The account of Alexander's fleet
voyage is based primarily on Arrian's writings - which probably
may have abbreviated Nearchus' account. Arrian min his "indike",
does not specifically mention any earthquake or tsunami event.
Unfortunately, Nearchus original account could not be located.
Plutarch's Account
- A good historical
account of Alexander the Great's Asian conquest and the fleet's
voyage back can be found in the works of Plutarch (79 AD), entitled
"Alexander". Plutarch's accounts provide good information
on Alexander's conquest of Asia and India, but very little information
about the fleet's journey in the Northern Arabian Sea and the
Persian Gulf. He does not mention anything about earthquakes
or tsunamis.
Sri Lanka and Indian
Records - According
to historical records (Fernando, 2005) (Mahawamsa) a town named
Kalyani Kanika, in Sri Lanka, and several other townships in
the Eastern Seaboard were inundated or destroyed by tsunami waves
in the time of King Kelanitissa. Also provided in these records
is an account of Viharamahadevi, the daughter of King Kelanitissa.
Viharamahadevi was set afloat at sea in Kalyani Kanika presumambly
to appease the Gods who were angry. However, sea currents, brought
her back to shore, landing her in Kirinda.
Also, ancient Indian
legends refer that Poompuhar, a port city located at the confluence
of river Kaveri and the Bay of Bengal in the Thanjavur District
in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu - once known as Kaveripattinam
- was washed away by a tsunami around A.D. 500. According to
the legend, goddess Manimekhalai was angry at the Chola King
and caused the city to be swallowed up by the sea. However, a
tsunami in this region of the Bay of Bengal must have had a source
in the Andaman Islands or the near Sumatra rather than in the
Makran region in the North Arabian Sea.
Brief Summary
of Alexander's India Campaign
According to Plutarch
(79 AD), after defeating the Persians, A lexander the Great continued
his conquest of Asia by turning south into Arachosia (southeast
Persia) and then continuing north into Afghanistan where he founded
cities to serve as army garrisons and centers of his administration.
Subsequently, he entered Bactria and Sogdiana, and marched his
armies as far as the Jaxartes River. After two years in this
region, , Alexander and his army crossed the Hindu Kush mountain
region (present Pakistan) and begun the conquest of India during
327-326 BC.
Construction of Fleet
- Journey on River Indus - There were several battles during the India campaign. Although
victorious, after the June 326 BC battle of Hydaspes - near the
northernmost of the five great tributaries of the Indus River
- Alexander was pressured by his generals to end his Asian conquest
and to return to Babylonia.
 Although Alexander was extremely
disappointed, he accepted to retun but persuaded his generals
to travel south down the rivers Hydaspes and Indus so that they
could reach the ocean.
The Athenian type
of trireme that served as Alexander's flagship, "Olympias",
named after his mother.
Subsequently, Alexander
ordered that 30 oared galleys (Athenian triremes) and other ships
be built to so they could sail down the Indus River in support
of the ongoing Indian campaign before transport part of his army
back to Babylonia. A total of 800 ships were built at Hydaspes.
In command of the newly constructed fleet, he appointed Nearchus
of Crete, who had been the satrap of Lycia and Pamphylia (in
Asia Minor), after the Sogdian campaign, and one of his two commanders
of the Shield bearers, a heavy infantry unit, before the battle
of Hydaspes. Also, Nearchus had considerable naval experience,
since he had made a exploration voyage along the Persian Gulf.
Onesicritus was appointed to be captain of Alexander's own ship.
The fleet sailed down
the river and into the Indus, with half of the forces on the
ships and the other half marching in three columns down the two
banks, leaded by Craterus, Haphesteion and Alexander himshelf.
In June, Alexander sent a third of his army under the command
of Craterus, back to Carmania over a northern land route. The
size of the returning army is estimated at 75,000 men. Even with
a third of the soldiers leaving for Carmania, based on Plutarch's
account, Alexander's army in India still amounted to about 140,000
foot soldiers and 15,000 cavalrymen.
Alexander's
India Campaign along the Indus River Valley (map of Livius.org)
The remaimder of the
India Campaign and the fleet's journey down the Indus River took
approximately seven months, during which Alexander conquered
what is now the Punjab state. In the summer of 325 BC, the fleet
and the bulk of the army reached Patala, the present city of
Bahmanabad, about 75 km northeast of present Hyderabad - at the
top of what was then the Indus delta. There he built a harbor
and explored both arms of the Indus River, which then ran into
the Rann of Kutch. According to Plutarch Alexander also traveled
further down to Indus to an offshore island. He describes such
a voyage and the appointment of Nearchus as commander of Alexander's
fleet, as follows:
"His (Alexander's)
voyage down the rivers took up seven months' time, and when he
came to the sea, he sailed to an island which he himself called
Scillustis, others Psiltucis, where going ashore, he sacrificed,
and made what observations he could as to the nature of the sea
and the sea-coast. Then having besought the gods that no other
man might ever go beyond the bounds of this expedition, he ordered
his fleet, of which he made Nearchus admiral and Onesicritus
pilot, to sail round about, keeping the Indian shore on the right
hand, _"
The island of Scillustis
or Psiltucis near the mouth of the Indus River mentioned by Plutarch
must have been a deltaic sand island which no longer exists due
to extensive sedimentation and shoreline changes.
A portion of Alexander's
army continued on land southeast of the Indus River and fought
several squirmishes before regrouping at Patala for the journey
back to Carmania, across the dangerous Gedrosian Desert.
Sea and Land
Routes of Alexander's Army and Fleet
Alexander's Army Return
Via the Southern Land Route - In
August 325 BC, Alexander with about 135,000 foot soldiers and
cavalry men left Patala towards Carmania, for the long and difficult
march back homeward, through the harsh Gedrosian desert (Arrian,
135-37 A.D.) - which was part of the ancient Achaemenid empire
(present region of Baluchistan region in Iran). Apparently, only
one fourth of the army survived the march back. Plutarch describes
Alexander's difficult journey via the southern land route and
the hardships the army endured as follows:
" and (Alexander) returned himself by land through the country
of the Orites (mountain
people) , where he
was reduced to great straits for want of provisions, and lost
a vast number of his men, so that of an army of one hundred and
twenty thousand foot and fifteen thousand horse, he scarcely
brought back above a fourth part out of India, they were so diminished
by disease, ill diet, and the scorching heats, but most by famine.
For their march was through an uncultivated country whose inhabitants
fared hardly, possessing only a few sheep, and those of a wretched
kind, whose flesh was rank and unsavoury,."
 The Fleet's Journey
to the Indus delta/Kutch region - Chronology of Events
On 15 September 325
BC, following the departure of the bulk of army via the southern
land route, the Greek fleet of 150 ships under Nearchus' command,
set out to sea for Carmania and Babylonia with the remaining
army which had dwindled to about 17,000 - 20,000 men.
Arrian's Chronology
of the Greek Fleet Sailing from the Port of Alexander. Written
by Arrian in the Ionian dialect - in the style of historian Herodotos.
However, September was too early in the season for the journey
west as the summer monsoon winds blow in this region from a southwest
direction from May through October. It is possible that Nearchus
received false information from the natives who were anxious
to see Alexander's ships leave. Almost immediately after sailing
from Patala, the ships encountered adverse winds. It took almost
a week to reach the Erythraean Sea (the Indian Ocean). Subsequently,
the fleet headed west towards Morontobara (present Karachi) through
the lagoon between the mouths of rivers Indus and Hab (the ancient
shoreline was different than the present shoreline - see diagram
on change).
The above stated
chronology of events has been somewhat reconciled with the ancient
records as to the month but not the year. A late September departure
is supported by Arrian's account (see ancient Greek text on the
timing of the fleet's departure from the Port of Alexander at
the delta of the Indus river). Specifically Arrian states that
soon as the strong summer (seasonal monsoon) sea winds (that
make sailing impossible) stopped, the Greek fleet set sail. As
for the date and month, he states that the journey begun during
the time that " Kifisodoros" was the ruler of Athens
( on the second year of his rule, following the 114th Olympic
Games held in 326 BC), and more specifically on the 20th of the
month known as "Voidromonas" ( the third month of the
Attica calendar - 15 September to 15 October, according to the
Athenian calendar, but also known as "Yperveretaios"
according to the Macedonian and Asian calendars. Arrian further
specifies that the year was the 11th of Alexander's reign, which
would make it 326 B.C. .Thus the Greek fleet's journey, according
to Arrian, lasted from September 326 to February 325 B.C.
EVALUATION
OF THE TSUNAMI OF 325 BC
 Partial Destruction
of the Greek Fleet by the 325 BC Tsunami
Renewed southwest
monsoons and dwindling food and water supplies slowed the fleet's
progress - forcing Nearchus to seek safe anchorage for the ships
and to establish a fortified shore camp for about 24 days, while
waiting for better weather conditions.
From Plutarch's description
and timing it can be safely concluded that the camp was established
just south of the Hab river (south of present Karachi), designated
"Port of Alexander". Upon establishing this camp, the
soldiers were forced to hunt and fish for food and to drink briny
water.
The most likely location
of the Greek fleet in late October /early November 325 BC when
the fleet was struck by the tsunami generated by a large earthquake
in the Makran Subduction Zone.
It was probably at
this time and at this location - in late October / early November
325 BC - that the large earthquake and tsunami occurred near
the Indus delta/Kutch region where the fleet had taken refuge.
According to Lietzin (1974), the earthquake had large magnitude
and massive waves destroyed a good part of Alexander's fleet.
Also, according to Sri Lankan texts, a destructive tsunami struck
the east side of the island. However, no details are available
as to the exact date of the event, the location of Alexander's
fleet at that time, or the extent of the losses.
Location
and Magnitude of the 325 BC Tsunamigenic Earthquake
 In all probability, the earthquake
of 325 BC occurred along the Makran coast (of present southern
Pakistan) and generated a destructive tsunami. The earthquake
must have been very similar to the Makran earthquake of 1945,
which generated a destructive tsunami along coastal areas of
India, Pakistan, Iran and Oman. Although infrequently, the Makran
subduction zone in the Northern Arabian Sea is capable of generating
such tsunamigenic earthquakes that can have an upper limit of
moment magnitude (Mw) of as much as 8 (Pararas-Carayannis, 2005a, b,
2006).
There is no information
in the historical records about the intensity of the 325 BC earthquake
from which a magnitude can be estimated, but since it was widely
reported and a tsunami purportedly caused destruction as far
away as eastern Sri Lanka, it can be assumed that it must have
been as great as that of 1945.
Another possibility
is that the 325 BC earthquake occurred in the Gujarat region,
where large events are also known to occur - particularly along
the Kutch Graben region or even near the Bombay graben. However,
none of the recent earthquakes that have occurred along the Kutch
Graben region have generated destructive tsunamis (Pararas-Carayannis,
2001). It is possible that an earthquake in the Guajarat region
could have triggered an underwater landslide and a local tsunami,
but such an event would not have the azimuthal concentration
of energy to cause destruction on the east coast of Sri Lanka.
More than likely, the large earthquake reported in the ancient
texts originated along the Makran subduction zone - a region
which is capable of generating destructive tsunamis (Pararas-Carayannis,
2005a,b, 2006).
The Indus delta/Kutch
region in the Guajarat region of India - east of the Makran Subduction
Zone - is a region that has produced numerous destructive earthquakes
in recent times, including a devastating earthquake in 2001 (Pararas-Carayannis,
2001).
Scenario
of the 325 BC Tsunami
It is not known with
any certainty if the tsunami of 325 BC struck the Greek fleet
while at anchor, or while out at sea. None of the ancient texts
provide information about losses or extent of damage. However,
based on Plutarch's and other historical accounts, and from current
knowledge of the sesimo-tectonics of the region, the chronology
of the journey of Alexander's fleet and the possible impact of
the 325 BC tsunami can be evaluated.
The timing of the
large earthquake was critical to the fate of the fleet. What
saved the Greek fleet from more extensive destruction was its
location when the tsunamigenic earthquake occurred. It is believed
that the earthquake occurred along the Makran Subduction Zone
in late October or early November of 325 BC, when the ships were
still in the Indus delta/Kutch region - near the delta of river
Hab (just south of present Karachi). According to Plutarch, the
Greek ships did not set sail from the estuary between the mouths
of rivers Indus and Hab until early November, when the southwest
monsoons subsided.
Location of Alexander's
Fleet in late October / early November 325 BC.
The delay in the fleet's
departure due to the adverse winds was a blessing in disguise
and probably saved most of the ships from total destruction.
If the earthquake had occurred later in November after the fleet
had left Morontobara (Karachi), or when the fleet was sailing
along the Makran coast (southern Pakistan) near Bagisara (present
Ormara), there could have been total destruction.
Not only the timing
of the earthquake but the orientation of the tsunami generating
area were critical to the fate of the Greek fleet. The tsunami
generating area along the Makran Subduction Zone would have an
east-west orientation. Therefore, the azimuthal propagation of
the tsunami energy was greater to the north and to the south
- and much less to the east or west. Thus the tsunami waves were
very large in height along the entire Makran region as well as
along the southwestern coasts of India and Sri Lanka, as the
tsunami wave energy refracted in deeper water. Immediately to
the east, where the Greek fleet was located, the waves were not
as high or as destructive. Apparently, the destruction must have
been partial and most of the ships were able to make repairs
and continue the journey west.
The Makran
Accretionary Front and Tectonic Subduction Zone in the Northern
Arabian Sea, marking the convergence boundary of the Oman oceanic
lithosphere and the Iranian microplate - a region of large but
infrequent tsunamigenic earthquakes (map modified after, Mokhtari
and Farahbod, 2005)
The impact of the
325 BC tsunami in the region was probably very similar to what
happened with the 1945 Makran event (Pararas-Carayannis 2005,
2006). The maximum run up height of the 1945 tsunami was 13 m
(40 feet), along the Makran coast. The waves destroyed fishing
villages, caused great damage to port facilities and killed more
than 4,000 people. However to the east the waves were significantly
lower. In 1945, Karachi was struck by waves of only about 2 meters
(6.5 feet) in height. Therefore, Alexander's fleet - which in
late October / early November 325 BC was still located east of
the delta of river Hab - must have been impacted by similar waves
of about 2 meters, thus limiting the damage.
 The Fleet's Journey
after the 325 BC Tsunami
With no opposing winds
during the monsoon transitional period in November of 325 BC,
the ships were able to make significant progress westward. According
to Arrian (based on Nearchus account), after leaving the Indus
delta/Kutch region, the Greek fleet continued the difficult journey,
first to Morontobara or Woman's Harbor (present Karachi) near
the mouth of the Hab river, then through the Sonmiani Bay, along
the Makran coast. One night, the Greek ships camped near the
battlefield on the coast where Leonnatus, one of Alexander's
generals, had defeated the native population, the Oreitans ('Mountain
people'). He had left a large food deposit for Nearchus' men
- enough to last for ten days. With renewed supplies and favorable
winds the ships reached the Hingol River and then continued to
Bagisara (present Ormara) - where the 325 BC tsunami probably
must have had its maximum impact earlier in late October / early
November.
A Greek trireme under
sail
The fleet made significant
progress westward when the northeast (winter) monsoons picked
up in early December, thus reaching rapidly Colta (Ras Sakani),
Calima (Kalat) and an island called Carnine (Astola). After provisioning
there, the fleet continued and passed Cysa (near present Pasni)
and Mosarna (near Ras Shahid). At Mosarna, a Gedrosian pilot
joined them, and in two days led the ships to what is now modern
Gwadar, where According to Arrian's account) they Greek army
was delighted to see date palms and gardens. Three days later,
Nearchus' men reached Cyisa, a town near modern Chah Bahar and
and raided it for supplies. Afterwards, they anchored near a
promontory dedicated to the Sun, which was called Bageia (dwelling of the gods') by the local natives - which is probably
the presetn day Ra's Kûh Lab. Other places mentioned by
Nearchus account of the voyage - as conveyed by Arrian of Nicomedia
- such as Talmena, Canasis, Canate, Taa or Dagaseira cannot be
identified. However Dagaseira may be the present town of Jask,
in Southern Iran.
After the long and
arduous journey, the fleet finally reached the Carmania region
and was subsequently reunited with the rest of Alexander's army
at Harmozeia (modern Mînab). Harmozeia (near the Strait
of Hormuz), was one of the largest ports in the Persian Gulf
in ancient times.
The coastline
along the Northern Arabian Sea
Finally, sometime
in January 324 BC, Alexander's fleet reached safely the mouth
of the Tigris River in Mesopotamia. However, Plutarch, Arrian
and none of the ancient historians give any information as to
how many ships of Alexander's fleet survived the long journey
along what were-until-then, uncharted waters. It is believed
that Nearchus provided the first navigational charts for this
region.
Tsunami
Occurrence Elsewhere in Alexander's Empire
Although there is
no specific accounting in ancient texts of the tsunami along
the Makran region, it is interesting to note that besides Alexander
the Great's fleet, Julius Caesar's Roman fleet also sustained
damage from unusual wave conditions (not a tsunami) and tidal
phenomena in 55 AD. Caesar was forced to retreat from the shores
of England after suffering damage to his fleet when he anchored
the Roman fleet in bays that had extensive tidal ranges and unusually
large waves.
There is a record
of a tsunami elsewhere in Alexander's Empire. The following account
of a tsunami is given by the ancient historian, Diodorus Siculus
(Diodorus of Sicely). Diodorus - in his rather allegorical narrative
below - includes a sea-monster in his account of the tsunami
wave that flooded the harbor of Alexandria. Of course, the event
is attributed to god Poseidon who was believed to be the originator
of earthquakes and tsunamis:
"As the Macedonian
construction came within range of their missiles, portents were
sent by the gods to them in their danger. Out of the sea a tidal
wave tossed a sea-monster of incredible size into the midst of
the Macedonian operations. It crashed into the mole but did it
no harm, remained resting a portion of its body against it for
a long time and then swam off into the sea again. This strange
event threw both sides into superstition, each imagining that
the portent signified that Poseidon would come to their aid,
for they were swayed by their own interest in the matter".
Conclusions
Although infrequently,
large magnitude earthquakes occur along the Makran region of
Southern Pakistan and the Indus delta/Kutch region. Earthquakes,
involving thrust motions along the Makran subduction zone are
known to generate destructive tsunamis. Destructive tsunami waves
can be generated also by underwater landslides in the region
because of extensive sediment accumulation along the deltas of
major rivers. Large earthquakes near the Kutch Graben can trigger
such underwater tsunamigenic landslides.
Ancient texts support
that a large earthquake and tsunami occurred in 325 BC. Since
Alexander the Great's fleet spent considerable time that year
in the Indus delta/Kutch and the Makran regions (India in ancient
times), it is very possible that the fleet sustained damage from
the tsunami, but managed to make repairs and continue west towards
Babylonia. In all probability, the tsunami originated along the
Makran Subduction Zone - the same source area that produced the
great Makran earthquake and tsunami of 1945. Based on ancient
records and current geophysical knowledge, it is believed that
the 325 BC earthquake occurred in late October but more likely
in early November. At that time, Alexabder's fleet was either
at anchor at the estuary near the delta of river Hab, or had
just set out to sea.
The source area of
the 325 BC tsunami along the Makran region had an east west orientation
- similar to that of 1945. The azimuthal propagation of the tsunami
energy was greater to the north and to the south. Since the Greek
fleet was still in the Indus delta/Kutch region - to the east
of the generating area near the mouth of Hab River - it is estimated
that it was struck by waves that were about 2 meters in height.
The wave heights of the 1945 tsunami were significantly lower
to the east. In 1945, Karachi was struck by waves that were only
2 meters (6.5 feet) high. However, along the Makran coast, the
1945 waves reached a maximum run up height of 13 m (40 feet),
destroyed fishing villages, caused great damage to port facilities
and killed more than 4,000 people. We can conclude that the 325
BC tsunami had similar wave heights.
The timing of the
325 BC tsunamigenic earthquake and the location of Alexander's
fleet were critical. If the earthquake had occurred later in
November of 325 BC, after the fleet had left Morontobara (Karachi),
or when it was near Bagisara (present Ormara), the outcome could
have been disastrous. The delay due to adverse monsoon winds
probably saved Alexander's fleet from total tsunami destruction.
REFERENCES
Arrian of Nicomedia",
135-137 A.D. Indikê, appendix to Anabasis.
One of seven books of the history of Alexander's march into Asia
- The fleet's journey is based primarily on the Indikê
by Alexander's fleet-commander Nearchus. (The first chapters
are derived from Megasthenes, a Greek envoy who visited Patna.)
Diodorus Siculus.
Diodorus of Sicily in Twelve Volumes with an English Translation
by C. H. Oldfather. Vol. 4-8. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University
Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989.)
Fernando, A.D.N.,2005. Tsunamis, earthquakes, their intensity
and periodicity. Online edition of the Island of Sri Lanka
http://servesrilanka.blogspot.com/2005/03/tsunamis-earthquakes-their-intensity.html
Gopala Pillai,
N., 1937. Skanda: The Alexander Romancein India. Proceedings
of the All-India Oriental Conference_, Vol. IX (Trivandrum: Government
Press, 1937), pp. 955-997
Mokhtari, M.,
Farahbod, A.M. 2005. Tsunami Occurrence in the Makran Region,
Tsunami Seminar, Tehran, 26th February 2005
Nearchus of Crete, 325 BC. Indike in classical' Greek.
Nearchus of Crete. http://www.livius.org/ne-nn/nearchus/nearchus.html
Pararas-Carayannis,
G. 2001. The Earthquake of 25 January in Guajarat, India.
http://www.drgeorgepc.com/Earthquake2001India.html
Pararas-Carayannis,
G., 2005. "The Earthquake of 8 October 2005 in Northern
Pakistan".
http://www.drgeorgepc.com/Earthquake2005Pakistan.html
Pararas-Carayannis, G., 2006. "The Potential of Tsunami
Generation Along the Makran Subduction Zone in the Northern Arabian
Sea - Case Study: The Earthquake and Tsunami of November 28,
1945", (abstract). Journal of Tsunami Hazards. Paper for
3rd Interantional Conference on the Science of Tsunami Hazards,
May 23-25, 2006, Honolulu, Hawaii.
Plutarch of Chaeronea,
79 AD. Life of Alexander, 356-323, translated by John Dryden.
Also in "The Fortune and Virtue of Alexander"
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